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What Episode Does Steve Use Gutenburg Again

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High german blacksmith, goldsmith, printer and publisher

Johannes Gutenberg
Gutenberg.jpg
Built-in

Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg


c. 1400

Mainz, Electorate of Mainz, Holy Roman Empire
Died three February 1468 (aged nigh 68)

Mainz, Electorate of Mainz, Holy Roman Empire
Occupation Engraver, inventor, and printer
Known for The invention of the movable-type press press

Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg (;[1] c.  1400 [2] – 3 February 1468) was a German language inventor, printer, publisher, and goldsmith who introduced printing to Europe with his mechanical movable-type press press. His work started the Press Revolution in Europe and is regarded as a milestone of the 2nd millennium, ushering in the modern menses of man history. Information technology played a key part in the development of the Renaissance, Reformation, Historic period of Enlightenment, and Scientific Revolution, equally well as laying the material basis for the modern knowledge-based economy and the spread of learning to the masses.[3] [4] [v] [half-dozen]

While not the get-go to use movable type in the world,[a] Gutenberg was the offset European to do then. His many contributions to printing include: the invention of a process for mass-producing movable type; the utilize of oil-based ink for printing books;[seven] adaptable molds;[8] mechanical movable type; and the use of a wooden printing press similar to the agricultural screw presses of the period.[9] His truly epochal invention was the combination of these elements into a applied arrangement that allowed the mass production of printed books and was economically viable for printers and readers akin. Gutenberg'southward method for making type is traditionally considered to have included a type metal alloy and a hand mould for casting type. The blend was a mixture of atomic number 82, tin can, and antimony that melted at a relatively low temperature for faster and more economical casting, cast well, and created a durable type.[10]

The employ of movable type was a marked improvement on the handwritten manuscript, which was the existing method of book production in Europe, and upon woodblock printing, and revolutionized European book-making. Gutenberg's press engineering science spread rapidly throughout Europe and later the world. His major piece of work, the Gutenberg Bible (also known every bit the 42-line Bible), was the get-go printed version of the Bible and has been acclaimed for its loftier artful and technical quality. In Renaissance Europe, the arrival of mechanical movable type printing introduced the era of mass advice which permanently altered the structure of lodge. The relatively unrestricted circulation of information—including revolutionary ideas—transcended borders, captured the masses in the Reformation, and threatened the power of political and religious authorities; the sharp increase in literacy broke the monopoly of the literate elite on education and learning and bolstered the emerging centre course. Across Europe, the increasing cultural self-awareness of its people led to the ascent of proto-nationalism, accelerated by the flowering of the European vernacular languages to the detriment of Latin's status as lingua franca. In the 19th century, the replacement of the hand-operated Gutenberg-style printing by steam-powered rotary presses allowed printing on an industrial calibration, while Western-style printing was adopted all over the world, becoming practically the sole medium for modern bulk printing.

An overview of the wide acclaim of Gutenberg's accomplishments is found in several sources:[11] In 1999, the A&E Network ranked Gutenberg no. 1 on their "People of the Millennium" countdown.[12] In 1997, Time–Life magazine picked Gutenberg'south invention as the virtually important of the second millennium.[13] Four prominent U.Southward. journalists did the same in their 1998 resume, ranking his touch on high in shaping the millennium.[14] The Catholic Encyclopedia describes Gutenberg's invention as having made a practically unparalleled cultural impact in the Christian era.[15]

Early life

Gutenberg in a 16th-century copper engraving

Gutenberg was born in the German urban center of Mainz, Rhine-Main area, the youngest son of the patrician merchant Friele Gensfleisch zur Laden, and his second married woman, Else Wyrich, who was the daughter of a shopkeeper. It is assumed that he was baptized in the expanse close to his birthplace of St. Christoph.[16] According to some accounts, Friele was a goldsmith for the bishop at Mainz, merely most likely, he was involved in the textile trade.[17] Gutenberg's year of birth is not precisely known, but it was onetime betwixt the years of 1394 and 1404. In the 1890s the city of Mainz declared his official and symbolic appointment of birth to be 24 June 1400.[18]

John Lienhard, applied science historian, says "Most of Gutenberg'due south early life is a mystery. His father worked with the ecclesiastic mint. Gutenberg grew up knowing the trade of goldsmithing."[19] This is supported past historian Heinrich Wallau, who adds, "In the 14th and 15th centuries his [ancestors] claimed a hereditary position as ... retainers of the household of the principal of the archiepiscopal mint. In this capacity, they doubtless caused considerable cognition and technical skill in metal working. They supplied the mint with the metallic to be coined, changed the diverse species of coins, and had a seat at the assizes in forgery cases."[20]

Wallau adds, "His surname was derived from the house inhabited by his father and his paternal ancestors 'zu Laden, zu Gutenberg'. The house of Gänsfleisch was one of the patrician families of the town, tracing its lineage back to the thirteenth century."[20] Patricians (the wealthy and political aristocracy) in Mainz were often named after houses they owned. Effectually 1427, the proper name zu Gutenberg, afterward the family firm in Mainz, is documented to have been used for the first time.[17]

In 1411, in that location was an uprising in Mainz against the patricians, and more than a hundred families were forced to leave. As a result, the Gutenbergs are thought to have moved to Eltville am Rhein (Alta Villa), where his mother had an inherited estate. Co-ordinate to historian Heinrich Wallau, "All that is known of his youth is that he was not in Mainz in 1430. It is presumed that he migrated for political reasons to Strasbourg, where the family probably had connections."[20] He is causeless to accept studied at the University of Erfurt, where there is a tape of the enrolment of a educatee called Johannes de Altavilla in 1418—Altavilla is the Latin form of Eltville am Rhein.[21] [22]

Nothing is at present known of Gutenberg'due south life for the next fifteen years, but in March 1434, a letter of the alphabet by him indicates that he was living in Strasbourg, where he had some relatives on his mother's side. He besides appears to have been a goldsmith member enrolled in the Strasbourg militia. In 1437, there is evidence that he was instructing a wealthy tradesman on polishing gems, simply where he had caused this knowledge is unknown. In 1436/37 his proper name besides comes up in court in connection with a broken promise of marriage to a woman from Strasbourg, Ennelin.[23] Whether the marriage actually took place is not recorded. Following his begetter's death in 1419, he is mentioned in the inheritance proceedings.

Printing printing

Early wooden printing printing, depicted in 1568. Such presses could produce upwardly to 240 impressions per hour.[24]

Around 1439, Gutenberg was involved in a financial misadventure making polished metal mirrors (which were believed to capture holy light from religious relics) for sale to pilgrims to Aachen: in 1439 the city was planning to exhibit its collection of relics from Emperor Charlemagne but the consequence was delayed by ane year due to a astringent flood and the capital letter already spent could not be repaid.

Until at least 1444 Gutenberg lived in Strasbourg, virtually likely in the St. Arbogast parish. It was in Strasbourg in 1440 that he is said to have perfected and unveiled the secret of press based on his research, mysteriously entitled Aventur und Kunst (enterprise and art). It is not articulate what work he was engaged in, or whether some early trials with printing from movable type were conducted in that location. After this, there is a gap of four years in the record. In 1448, he was dorsum in Mainz, where he took out a loan from his brother-in-law Arnold Gelthus, quite perchance for a printing printing or related paraphernalia. By this date, Gutenberg may have been familiar with intaglio printing; information technology is claimed that he had worked on copper engravings with an artist known as the Master of Playing Cards.[25]

"All that has been written to me about that marvelous man seen at Frankfurt [sic] is true. I have not seen complete Bibles simply only a number of quires of diverse books of the Bible. The script was very dandy and legible, non at all hard to follow—your grace would exist able to read it without effort, and indeed without glasses."

Future pope Pius Two in a letter of the alphabet to Cardinal Carvajal, March 1455[18]

By 1450, the press was in operation, and a High german poem had been printed, possibly the get-go particular to be printed there.[26] Gutenberg was able to convince the wealthy moneylender Johann Fust for a loan of 800 guilders. Peter Schöffer, who became Fust'southward son-in-police force, too joined the enterprise. Schöffer had worked as a scribe in Paris and is believed to accept designed some of the first typefaces.

Gutenberg's workshop was set up at Humbrechthof, a property belonging to a distant relative. It is non clear when Gutenberg conceived the Bible project, simply for this he borrowed some other 800 guilders from Fust, and work commenced in 1452. At the same time, the press was also printing other, more than lucrative texts (perhaps Latin grammars). There is too some speculation that at that place were ii presses: ane for the pedestrian texts and one for the Bible. One of the profit-making enterprises of the new press was the press of thousands of indulgences for the church building, documented from 1454 to 1455.[27]

In 1455 Gutenberg completed his 42-line Bible, known as the Gutenberg Bible. About 180 copies were printed, most on newspaper and some on vellum.

Court instance

Some time in 1456, there was a dispute betwixt Gutenberg and Fust, and Fust demanded his money back, accusing Gutenberg of misusing the funds. Gutenberg'due south ii rounds of financing from Fust, a total of 1,600 guilders at 6% interest, at present amounted to 2,026 guilders.[28] Fust sued at the archbishop's court. A Nov 1455 legal document records that in that location was a partnership for a "projection of the books," the funds for which Gutenberg had used for other purposes, according to Fust. The court decided in favor of Fust, giving him command over the Bible printing workshop and half of all printed Bibles.

Thus Gutenberg was finer bankrupt, but information technology appears he retained (or restarted) a minor printing shop, and participated in the printing of a Bible in the boondocks of Bamberg around 1459, for which he seems at least to have supplied the type. But since his printed books never carry his name or a date, it is hard to be sure, and there is consequently a considerable scholarly contend on this subject. Information technology is also possible that the big Catholicon dictionary, 300 copies of 754 pages, printed in Mainz in 1460, was executed in his workshop.

Meanwhile, the Fust–Schöffer shop was the kickoff in Europe to bring out a volume with the printer'southward name and date, the Mainz Psalter of Baronial 1457, and while proudly proclaiming the mechanical procedure past which it had been produced, it fabricated no mention of Gutenberg.

Later life

In 1462, during the devastating Mainz Diocesan Feud, Mainz was sacked by Archbishop Adolph von Nassau. On xviii January 1465, Gutenberg's achievements were recognized by Archbishop von Nassau.[20] He was given the title Hofmann (gentleman of the court). This award included a stipend and an annual courtroom outfit, likewise as 2,180 litres of grain and 2,000 litres of wine tax-free.[29]

Gutenberg died in 1468 and was buried likely as a 3rd in the Franciscan church at Mainz.[twenty] This church and the cemetery were subsequently destroyed, and Gutenberg's grave is now lost.[29]

In 1504, he was mentioned as the inventor of typography in a book by Professor Ivo Wittig. It was not until 1567 that the beginning portrait of Gutenberg, most certainly an imaginary reconstruction, appeared in Heinrich Pantaleon'southward biography of famous Germans.[29]

Printed books

Between 1450 and 1455, Gutenberg printed several texts, some of which remain unidentified; his texts did not bear the printer's name or date, so attribution is possible simply from typographical bear witness and external references. Certainly several church building documents including a papal alphabetic character and two indulgences were printed, ane of which was issued in Mainz. In view of the value of press in quantity, seven editions in two styles were ordered, resulting in several thousand copies beingness printed.[thirty] Some printed editions of Ars Minor, a schoolbook on Latin grammar by Aelius Donatus, may have been printed by Gutenberg; these accept been dated either 1451–52 or 1455.

In 1455, Gutenberg completed copies of a beautifully executed folio Bible (Biblia Sacra), with 42 lines on each page. Copies sold for 30 florins each,[31] which was roughly three years' wages for an average clerk. However, it was much cheaper than a manuscript Bible that could take a single scribe over a year to set. Later printing, some copies were rubricated or hand-illuminated in the same elegant way as manuscript Bibles from the same period.

48 essentially complete copies are known to survive, including two at the British Library that can exist viewed and compared online.[32] The text lacks modern features such as page numbers, indentations, and paragraph breaks.

An undated 36-line edition of the Bible was printed, probably in Bamberg in 1458–60, perhaps by Gutenberg. A large role of it was shown to accept been prepare from a copy of Gutenberg'south Bible, thus disproving earlier speculation that it was the earlier of the 2.[33]

Printing method with movable blazon

Movable metal type, and composing stick, descended from Gutenberg's press.

Martin Luther'southward 95 Theses which sparked off the Reformation in a print edition from 1522. Within the span of merely ii years, Luther'southward tracts were distributed in 300,000 printed copies throughout Deutschland and Europe.[34]

European output of books printed with movable types from Gutenberg to 1800[35]

Gutenberg's early printing process, and what texts he printed with movable type, are not known in great particular. His later Bibles were printed in such a way as to have required large quantities of type, some estimates suggesting every bit many as 100,000 individual sorts.[36] Setting each page would take, perhaps, half a day, and because all the work in loading the printing, inking the type, pulling the impressions, hanging up the sheets, distributing the type, etc., it is thought that the Gutenberg–Fust store might accept employed equally many as 25 craftsmen.[ commendation needed ]

Gutenberg's technique of making movable type remains unclear. In the post-obit decades, punches and copper matrices became standardized in the rapidly disseminating press presses across Europe. Whether Gutenberg used this sophisticated technique or a somewhat primitive version has been the subject of considerable debate.

In the standard process of making type, a hard metal punch (made by punchcutting, with the alphabetic character carved back to front) is hammered into a softer copper bar, creating a matrix. This is so placed into a hand-held mould and a piece of blazon, or "sort", is bandage by filling the mould with molten type-metallic; this cools most at once, and the resulting slice of type can be removed from the mould. The matrix can be reused to create hundreds, or thousands, of identical sorts so that the same graphic symbol appearing anywhere inside the book will appear very uniform, giving rise, over time, to the evolution of singled-out styles of typefaces or fonts. Later on casting, the sorts are arranged into blazon cases, and used to make up pages which are inked and printed, a procedure which can be repeated hundreds, or thousands, of times. The sorts tin exist reused in any combination, earning the process the name of "movable type". (For details, meet Typography.)

The invention of the making of types with dial, matrix and mold has been widely attributed to Gutenberg. Nonetheless, contempo evidence suggests that Gutenberg's process was somewhat dissimilar. If he used the punch and matrix approach, all his letters should have been nearly identical, with some variation due to miscasting and inking. Yet, the blazon used in Gutenberg's earliest work shows other variations.[ citation needed ]

In 2001, the physicist Blaise Agüera y Arcas and Princeton librarian Paul Needham, used digital scans of a Papal bull in the Scheide Library, Princeton, to carefully compare the same messages (types) actualization in dissimilar parts of the printed text.[37] [38] The irregularities in Gutenberg's blazon, particularly in simple characters such as the hyphen, suggested that the variations could not have come up either from ink smear or from wear and damage on the pieces of metal on the types themselves. Although some identical types are conspicuously used on other pages, other variations, subjected to detailed prototype analysis, suggested that they could not have been produced from the same matrix. Transmitted low-cal pictures of the page also appeared to reveal substructures in the blazon that could not arise from traditional punchcutting techniques. They hypothesized that the method involved impressing simple shapes to create alphabets in "cuneiform" mode in a matrix fabricated of some soft cloth, perhaps sand. Casting the blazon would destroy the mould, and the matrix would need to be recreated to make each additional sort. This could explain the variations in the type, also as the substructures observed in the printed images.

Thus, they speculated that "the decisive factor for the nascence of typography", the utilise of reusable moulds for casting type, was a more progressive process than was previously thought.[39] They suggested that the boosted step of using the dial to create a mould that could exist reused many times was not taken until twenty years later, in the 1470s. Others take non accepted some or all of their suggestions, and have interpreted the prove in other means, and the truth of the affair remains uncertain.[xl]

Page-setting room – c. 1920

A 1568 book Batavia past Hadrianus Junius from Holland claims that the idea of the movable type came to Gutenberg from Laurens Janszoon Coster via Fust, who was apprenticed to Coster in the 1430s and may have brought some of his equipment from Haarlem to Mainz. While Coster appears to have experimented with moulds and castable metal type, there is no bear witness that he had actually printed anything with this engineering science. He was an inventor and a goldsmith. However, there is one indirect supporter of the claim that Coster might exist the inventor. The author of the Cologne Chronicle of 1499 quotes Ulrich Zell, the beginning printer of Cologne, that printing was performed in Mainz in 1450, just that some type of printing of lower quality had previously occurred in holland. However, the relate does not mention the name of Coster,[33] [41] while it actually credits Gutenberg as the "offset inventor of printing" in the very same passage (fol. 312). The first securely dated book past Dutch printers is from 1471,[41] and the Coster connection is today regarded as a mere legend.[42]

The 19th-century printer and typefounder Fournier Le Jeune suggested that Gutenberg was not using blazon cast with a reusable matrix, merely wooden types that were carved individually. A similar suggestion was made by Nash in 2004.[40] This remains possible, albeit entirely unproven.

Legacy

"What the earth is today, good and bad, information technology owes to Gutenberg. Everything can be traced to this source, merely we are bound to bring him homage, … for the bad that his colossal invention has brought nearly is overshadowed a thousand times by the proficient with which mankind has been favored."

American author Marking Twain (1835–1910)[43] [44]

The contrary of this medal.

Although Gutenberg was financially unsuccessful in his lifetime, the printing technologies spread quickly, and news and books began to travel across Europe much faster than earlier. Information technology fed the growing Renaissance, and since it greatly facilitated scientific publishing, it was a major catalyst for the later scientific revolution.

The capital of printing in Europe shifted to Venice, where visionary printers like Aldus Manutius ensured widespread availability of the major Greek and Latin texts. The claims of an Italian origin for movable type have also focused on this rapid ascension of Italia in movable-type printing. This may peradventure be explained past the prior eminence of Italia in the newspaper and printing merchandise. Additionally, Italy's economy was growing rapidly at the time, facilitating the spread of literacy. Christopher Columbus had a geography book (printed with movable type) bought by his father. That book is in a Castilian museum, the Biblioteca Colombina in Seville. Finally, the city of Mainz was sacked in 1462, driving many (including a number of printers and dial cutters) into exile.

Printing was also a factor in the Reformation. Martin Luther's Ninety-5 Theses were printed and circulated widely; subsequently he issued broadsheets outlining his anti-indulgences position (certificates of indulgences were 1 of the first items Gutenberg had printed). The broadsheet contributed to evolution of the newspaper.

In the decades after Gutenberg, many conservative patrons looked down on cheap printed books; books produced by paw were considered more desirable.

Today in that location is a large antiquarian market place for the primeval printed objects. Books printed prior to 1500 are known equally incunabula.

There are many statues of Gutenberg in Germany, including the famous one past Bertel Thorvaldsen (1837) at Gutenbergplatz in Mainz, habitation to the eponymous Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz and the Gutenberg Museum on the history of early printing. The latter publishes the Gutenberg-Jahrbuch, the leading periodical in the field.

United States Postal Service stamp issued in 1952 commemorating the 500th anniversary of Gutenberg'due south offset printed Bible

Project Gutenberg, the oldest digital library,[45] commemorates Gutenberg'southward name. The Mainzer Johannisnacht commemorates the person Johannes Gutenberg in his native city since 1968.

In 1952, the United States Mail issued a five hundredth anniversary stamp commemorating Johannes Gutenberg invention of the movable-type printing press.

In 1961 the Canadian philosopher and scholar Marshall McLuhan entitled his pioneering study in the fields of print culture, cultural studies, and media ecology, The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man.

Regarded equally one of the most influential people in human history, Gutenberg remains a towering effigy in the pop prototype. In a 1978 volume by a historian that purports to rank the 100 almost influential persons in history, Gutenberg comes in at number eight, after T'sai Lun and before Christopher Columbus.[46] In 1999, the A&Due east Network ranked Gutenberg the No. one most influential person of the second millennium on their "Biographies of the Millennium" countdown. In 1997, Time–Life magazine picked Gutenberg'due south invention as the most important of the 2nd millennium.[11]

In space, he is commemorated in the name of the asteroid 777 Gutemberga.

Ii operas based on Gutenberg are One thousand, Being the Confession and Terminal Testament of Johannes Gensfleisch, as well known as Gutenberg, Chief Printer, formerly of Strasbourg and Mainz, from 2001 with music past Gavin Bryars;[47] and La Nuit de Gutenberg, with music past Philippe Manoury, premiered in 2011 in Strasbourg.[48]

In 2018, WordPress named its new editing system Gutenberg in tribute to him.[49]

Notes

  1. ^ The outset books known to have been printed in metal type set were published in Goryeo Dynasty Korea in 1234.

References

Citations

  1. ^ "Johann Gutenberg". American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language (Fifth ed.). Houghton Miflin Harcourt Publishing. 2020. Retrieved fourteen April 2021.
  2. ^ Childress 2008, p. 14
  3. ^ McLuhan 1962.
  4. ^ Eisenstein 1980.
  5. ^ Febvre & Martin 1984.
  6. ^ Man 2002.
  7. ^ Sivulka 1998, p. 5.
  8. ^ "Gutenberg's Invention - Fonts.com". Fonts.com.
  9. ^ Whipps, Heather (26 May 2008). "How Gutenberg Changed the Earth". Live Science.
  10. ^ Lyons 2011, p. 56.
  11. ^ a b "Gutenberg, Homo of the Millennium". 1,000+ People of the Millennium and Beyond. 2000. Archived from the original on iii March 2012.
  12. ^ Zad, Martie. "Top 100 People of 1,000 Years". Washington Mail.
  13. ^ "Johann Gutenberg, Man of the Millennium" (in German). Mainz. Archived from the original on ten March 2010. Retrieved 14 Apr 2021.
  14. ^ "1,000 Years, i,000 People: Ranking The Men and Women Who Shaped The Millennium". Archived from the original on 3 March 2012. Retrieved 16 March 2010.
  15. ^ "Johann Gutenberg". Cosmic Encyclopedia. 2020. Retrieved xiv April 2021. The invention of Gutenberg should be classed with the greatest events in the history of the world.
  16. ^ St. Christopher'due south Archived 4 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine – Gutenberg'south baptismal church
  17. ^ a b Hanebutt-Benz, Eva-Maria. "Gutenberg and Mainz". Archived from the original on 11 December 2006. Retrieved 24 November 2006.
  18. ^ a b Childress 2008, p. 62
  19. ^ "Lienhard, John H". Uh.edu. i August 2004. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
  20. ^ a b c d eastward Wallau 1910.
  21. ^ Martin 1995, p. 217.
  22. ^ Dudley 2008, p. 78.
  23. ^ "Gutenberg und seine Zeit in Daten (Gutenberg and his times; Timeline)". Gutenberg Museum. Archived from the original on 22 Dec 2006. Retrieved 24 Nov 2006.
  24. ^ Wolf 1974, pp. 67f.
  25. ^ Lehmann-Haupt, Hellmut (1966). Gutenberg and the Main of the Playing Cards . New Haven: Yale University Press.
  26. ^ Klooster, John W. (2009). Icons of invention: the makers of the modernistic world from Gutenberg to Gates. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 8. ISBN978-0-313-34745-0.
  27. ^ Kelley, Peter. "Documents that Inverse the World: Gutenberg indulgence, 1454". UW Today. University of Washington. Retrieved 28 April 2015.
  28. ^ Hessels 1911.
  29. ^ a b c Sumner 2009.
  30. ^ Meggs & Purvis 2016, pp. 435–436, 442–443.
  31. ^ Cormack & Ede 2004.
  32. ^ "Treasures in Total: Gutenberg Bible". British Library. Retrieved xix October 2006.
  33. ^ a b Kapr 1996, p. 322.
  34. ^ Duchesne 2006, p. 83
  35. ^ Buringh & van Zanden 2009, p. 417, Table 2.
  36. ^ Singer, C.; Holmyard, E.; Hall, A.; Williams, T. (1958). A History of Applied science, vol. 3. Oxford University Press.
  37. ^ Agüera y Arcas, Blaise; Needham, Paul (November 2002). "Computational analytical bibliography". Proceedings Bibliopolis Briefing The future history of the volume . The Hague (Netherlands): Koninklijke Bibliotheek.
  38. ^ "What Did Gutenberg Invent?". Retrieved xvi August 2011.
  39. ^ Adams, James L. (1991). Flying Buttresses, Entropy and O-Rings: the World of an Engineer. Harvard University Printing. ISBN0-674-30688-0.
  40. ^ a b Nash 2004, pp. 86–96.
  41. ^ a b Juchhoff 1950, pp. 131f..
  42. ^ Costeriana Archived 12 Dec 2012 at the Wayback Machine. While the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition had attributed the invention of the printing press to Coster, the more recent editions of the work attribute it to Gutenberg to reflect, as it says, the common consent that has adult in the 20th century. "Typography – Gutenberg and printing in Deutschland." Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007.
  43. ^ Marker Twain (27 June 1900). "The Piece of work of Gutenberg". Hartford Daily Courant. p. 7.
  44. ^ Twain, Mark (seven April 1900). "Gutenberg". Letter of the alphabet to Adolf Goerz.
  45. ^ Thomas, Jeffrey (twenty June 2007). "Project Gutenberg Digital Library Seeks To Spur Literacy". U.S. Department of Country, Bureau of International Information Programs. Retrieved 20 August 2007.
  46. ^ Hart, Michael H. (1978). The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History, pp. 66, 72, & 78. A & W Publishers.
  47. ^ Gavin Bryars (eighteen April 2011). "Gavin Bryars Introduces". WQXR . Retrieved 16 January 2015.
  48. ^ "UC San Diego Composer Philippe Manoury Wins French Grammy" (Press release). University of California San Diego News Centre. 20 March 2012. Retrieved 16 January 2015.
  49. ^ "The new Gutenberg editing experience". wordpress.org.

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  • McLuhan, Marshall (1962). The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (1st ed.). Academy of Toronto Press. ISBN978-0-8020-6041-9. OCLC 1060782671.
  • Meggs, Philip B.; Purvis, Alston W. (2016). Meggs' History of Graphic Blueprint. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN978-1-119-13623-1. OCLC 946992970.
  • Nash, Paul West. (Summer 2004). "The 'commencement' type of Gutenberg: a note on contempo research". The Individual Library. Leeds: West.S. Maney & Son Ltd. 7 (2): 86–96. doi:10.17613/2nyd-gy45. ISSN 0032-8898. OCLC 963827459.
  • Sivulka, Juliann (1998). Soap, Sex activity, and Cigarettes: A Cultural History of American Advert . Cengage Learning. ISBN978-0-534-51593-five. OCLC 654719746.
  • Sumner, Tracy M. (2009). "The Power of the Printing Press: Joannes Gutenberg'due south Contribution to Bible Distribution". How Did We Get the Bible?. Uhrichsville, Ohio: Barbour Publishing. ISBN978-1-60742-349-ii. OCLC 829164929.
  • Wallau, Heinrich Wilhelm (1910). "Johann Gutenberg". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 7. New York: Robert Appleton Visitor.
  • Wolf, Hans-Jürgen (1974). Geschichte der Druckpressen [History of the printing press] (in German) (1st ed.). Frankfurt/Main: Interprint. OCLC 250428044.

Further reading

  • Eisenstein, Elizabeth (2005). The Press Revolution in Early Modern Europe (2d, rev. ed.). Cambridge University Printing. ISBN0-521-60774-4. OCLC 898417757. [More contempo, abridged version]
  • Morrison, Blake (2000). The justification of Johann Gutenberg: a novel . Toronto: Doubleday Canada. ISBN978-0-385-25984-two. OCLC 1200489070 – via Cyberspace Annal. Describes the social and technical aspects of the invention of printing.
  • Pearson, Emily Clemens (1871). Gutenberg, and the Art of Printing. Boston: Noyes, Holmes. OCLC 50847236 – via Projection Gutenberg.

External links

  • English homepage of the Gutenberg-Museum Mainz, Germany.
  • The Digital Gutenberg Projection: the Gutenberg Bible in one,300 digital images, every page of the Academy of Texas at Austin re-create.
  • Treasures in Full – Gutenberg Bible View the British Library'southward Digital Versions Online
  • Giovanni Balbi. Catholicon. Mainz: Printed by Johann Gutenberg? 1460, at The Library of Congress.
  • Texts on Wikisource:
    • "Gutenberg, Johannes". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
    • "Gutenburg, Johannes". The Nuttall Encyclopædia. 1907.
    • "Gutenberg, Johann". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
    • "Johann Gutenberg". Catholic Encyclopedia. 1913.
    • "Gutenberg, Johannes". The New Student's Reference Work. 1914.
    • "Gutenberg, Johannes". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.
    • "Gutenberg, Johannes". Collier'south New Encyclopedia. 1921.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg

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